In the Time of the Butterflies Essay Example for Free

In the Time of the Butterflies Essay Courage is valued among the characters, and they display it in varying amounts. Among all the sisters Minerva shows the most courage. First she starts off by wanting to be a lawyer and she is not afraid of speaking her mind. She goes to a boarding school where she meets a girl who is against Trujillo and learns how bad Trujillo really is. This is when she begins to start acting rebellious. Once she is older, Minerva’s family is invited to a party at Trujillo’s palace where she does things that most people would never even dare to think of doing. Minerva plays a game with Trujillo which she wins and gets her father released from arrest and gets her into law school. In law school, she joins a group that is speaking out against Trujillo. A lot of courage is needed to complete the tasks that Minerva completed and with these tasks she developed a love-hate relationship with Trujillo making some of the tasks easier to complete. In the end three out of the four sister have a lot courage and become a symbol for many people. The three sisters are killed, but by who they were killed is very controversial. The sisters are all aware of their cowardice as they perceive it, and while they sometimes fight for courage, in some cases they simply accept their cowardice, except for Minerva who shows courage at all times. Growing up Minerva was almost the bravest out of all the sisters. She was not afraid to speak her mind, even if they might be spies around. She would say things about Trujillo that would make everyone jump and ask if she was trying to get everyone killed. She always wanted to be free and make a difference in the world. Government and politics were not a place for women. A woman’s place was to follow her husband and be loyal to her husband. Minerva, on the other hand, wanted to be a lawyer. In reply, her mother comments, â€Å" Just what we need, skirts in the law! † Minerva argues, however, â€Å"It is just what this country needs It’s about time we women had a voice in running our country. † Her sisters had always worried about Minerva and her bravery because politics were dirty business and someone was always getting killed because they said the wrong thing and made Trujillo unhappy. Minerva did not care about the risks about being a woman in politics, she cared about equality and making a difference in the Dominican Republic. She thought she would get some freedom if she left home and went to a boarding school and that’s exactly what she did. In the boarding school, Minerva met a girl whose family was killed by Trujillo and she absolutely hated him for that. This girl told Minerva about all the terrible things that Trujillo has done and this is when Minerva starts learning more about Trujillo. This is also when you start seeing Minerva start becoming rebellious. This is shown when there is a class going on, but Minerva is not there instead she is on a balcony above the class talking to the girl who told her about Trujillo. This boarding school is also where she meets Trujillo for the first time and also shows bravery here. The school is performing a play for Trujillo when Minerva’s friend lifts her arrow and points it at Trujillo. Minerva risks herself to stop her friend from shooting the arrow. It was a small act of courage, but its the small acts that lead to the greater ones. Once Minerva graduates from boarding school and returns home, shortly after the family receives a party invitation from Trujillo. Once inside the castle, Minerva gets seated at a special table which was a request from Trujillo and once Trujillo arrives in the ballroom where the party is being held, he asks Minerva to dance. While dancing, Trujillo tells her how he never forgot her from the boarding school and how he thinks that she is very beautiful. Trujillo slowly moves his hands down her back and onto her buttocks and that is when she backs up and slaps him. No one would ever dare slap Trujillo, even after an act like this. This is a great act of disgrace and Minerva was very brave for standing her ground and slapping him. Everyone looked down on her with shock for what she did and her family was very mad and panicked and left immediately. Her family was very mad because slapping Trujillo could get the whole family killed because that was an act of rebellion. Minerva explains to her family that she did not slap him as a sign of rebellion, but because he touched her buttocks making her very uncomfortable. The family then was not as mad, but they were still very worried to what was going to happen to them. At this point of the movie, Minerva is still the one with the most courage while the rest of the family is accepting their cowardice. It took a lot of courage for Minerva to slap Trujillo in such a public place and at his own party. She knew there would be consequences to this, but she was still not afraid. Soon after the party soldiers came to the Mirabel household looking for the father. They said they were taking him in for quest oning, but everyone knew that he was being arrested and they did not know when they would see him again. Once the soldiers left, Minerva smashed the picture of Trujillo that was hung in their house because of her anger. This is another act of courage because if there are spies around they can come in and take Minerva away and kill her for doing that. ANother act of courage is when Minerva goes to the castle of Trujillo to talk to him about releasing her f ather. Trujillo came up with a game that they would play. They had to roll dice and who ever got the higher number won. The deal they made was if he won her father would not be released, but if she won the father would be released and she would be allowed to go to law school. Women were not allowed to go to law school in the Dominican Republic, so asking Trujillo to let her attend was another act of courage. Minerva ended up winning and Trujillo break the deal that he made with Minerva. The father was released and Minerva soon left to law school. At this point of the movie, Minerva’s sister began to show courage too. In law school, Minerva joins a group that goes against Trujillo and comes up with different plans and ideas to rebel against him, for example hanging up posters around town. One day one of Minerva’s sisters runs away from home and comes to Minerva. This is brave because women were needed at home and it was dangerous for them to travel by themselves. Also leaving home with not telling anyone would leave the parents worrying about their daughter. Minerva tells her sister to go home because it’s a bad time and not a place for her sister to be, trying to protect her. Leaving her sister met a guy who was part of the rebellious group and he got her to be in it as well. Now this is sister is being brave because now she is going against Trujillo as well putting the family in even more danger. Soon the third sister is also in the group and the three sisters become the leaders of this group. They become known as, â€Å"Las Mariposas. † The group is soon caught and everyone in it is arrested. When the sisters look out a small hole in the wall, they see a flag with butterflies on it, representing them and this gives them more hope. Soon the sisters are released from jail by Trujillo. When Minerva arrives at home, Trujillo is there waiting for her. He tells her that she has a lot of courage because everytime he does something nice for her because he likes her, she instead turns her back and does something back and is not afraid to pay the consequences. She then asks Trujillo to release hers and her sisters husbands from jail and Trujillo says he will. The sisters go visit their husbands and give them the good news, but on the way there they get stopped by soldiers. They get taken out of the car and into the cornfields where hey get slaughtered. This ending is very controversial because it was a group of men that killed them, but after all their courage and everything they did for the country, who would want to harm them? Also could have Trujillo ordered their death even if he loved Minerva and did everything she asked for? This part of the story may never be known. The movie begins with only Minerva being the brave one, but ends with three out of four sisters being the brave ones and fighting for what they believed was right. The sisters stopped accepting their cowardice and displayed their courage. As she was being marched down the hall, a voice from one of the cells called out,Mariposa does not belong to herself alone. She belongs to Quisqueya! Then everyone was beating on the bars calling out, Viva La Mariposa! Tears came to my eyes. Something big and powerful spread its wings inside me. Courage, I told myself. And this time, I felt it. † This is a quote from the movie and book that shows that although Minerva has been courageous the whole time, she did not feel it until she was leaving the jail. Everything that Minerva did in her lifetime, built her courage up and made her stronger each time.

Examine The Legality Of Military Humanitarian Intervention International Law Essay

Examine The Legality Of Military Humanitarian Intervention International Law Essay The general prohibition on the use of force contained in Article 2(4)  [1]  of the UN Charter forms a cornerstone of public international law. That prohibition is subject to a very narrow category of exceptions, all of which arise from the right to self-defence codified in Article 51 of the UN Charter.  [2]  A more controversial exception to the use of force that has been claimed to arise as a rule of customary international law is that of humanitarian intervention. This essay looks at the arguments in support of the proposition that humanitarian intervention is now established in international law as a lawful exception to the general prohibition on the use of force and assertions against such a proposition. The theoretical debate Ever since the question of the legality of humanitarian intervention first arose, there has been both vocal support and opposition to it. Lauterpacht famously put forward the rationale behind humanitarian intervention. He stated that one had to go back to the purpose of the general prohibition on the use of force, and that was to ensure peace. He considered that ultimately, peace is more endangered by tyrannical contempt for human rights than by attempts to assert, through intervention, the sanctity of human personality.  [3]  He thus considered that humanitarian intervention was justified if a state committed atrocities against its citizens in such a way and to such a degree that it interfered with those citizens fundamental human rights. However, it has always been appreciated that there are problems with the very idea that a state would expend its own resources and risk its own security simply for the good of the citizens of another state. Such a view might be considered to be cynical, but there is no doubt that history has shown that whenever humanitarian intervention is claimed as the legal basis for military force in another country, it is mixed with other reasons why a state would military intervene in another state.  [4]  Furthermore, humanitarian intervention is often put forward as a basis for legality of force without the citizens of the state who have suffered the intervention asking for such intervention to take place.  [5]  One can therefore question the theoretical underpinnings of such intervention. This problem is only exacerbated when one considers that humanitarian intervention is intervention that is undertaken by states on a unilateral basis outside of the precepts of the Security Council. The purpose of setting up the United Nations and the Security Council was to provide for peace throughout the world and engage in military intervention when required, as authorised by the Security Council. The Security Council is thus authorised with powers under Chapter VII of the UN Charter that allows it to authorise military use of force in another country. In doing so, the Security Council is able to take into account the fact that a particular country is facing human rights violations at the hands of its government and/or leaders.  [6]  Thus for example, in 1991, when the oppressive government of Iraq being led by Saddam Hussein took disproportionate military action to repress the Iraqi civilian population, the Security Council passed Resolution 668 under Chapter 7 of the UN Cha rter demanding of Iraq to immediately end the repression and insist that it allowed access to international humanitarian organisations to enter Iraq.  [7]   Any force authorised by the Security Council may be politically contentious, but there is no doubt that it would be lawful under the rules of force in international law. Given that there is such a power in the Security Council, one would question why there was a need for humanitarian intervention.  [8]  Indeed, providing that there is a right for humanitarian intervention available to states that can be exercised independently of the UN and the Security Council would greatly undermine the function of the Security Council as the body entrusted with authorisation of military force.  [9]   Humanitarian intervention is thus a doctrine which has long been debated in the courts. The real debate lies however in the practical instances that have arisen in the past where humanitarian intervention has been alleged as a justification of force. The section below shall go on to analyse these practical instances and asses to what extent humanitarian intervention can be said to now be a norm of international law. Practical instances of humanitarian intervention One major problem that arises when assessing the legality of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention is that one must distinguish between instances where the doctrine is invoked in rhetoric and public relations only and instanced where humanitarian intervention is actually relied on as a legal basis for justifying use of force in another state. The latter is a lot rarer than the former. The problem however is that it is only the latter incidents that is actually evidence of state practise of the right to humanitarian intervention. One of the earliest incidents to deal with the concept of humanitarian intervention commented on by commentators was that of Indian action in Bangladesh. In early 1971, following subjugation to Pakistani rule, Bangladeshi nationals were rebelling and seeking to establish Bangladesh as an independent country. India provided extensive military aid to Bangladesh to allow this to happen, aid without which arguably Bangladesh would not have won the conflict. In public theoretic, India stated thats is actions were based on humanitarian intervention since the Bangladeshis were suffering human rights violations under Pakistani rule.  [10]  This was highly criticised however for the fact was that India in having long-standing conflict with Pakistan itself did have vested interests in helping Bangladesh gain independence.  [11]  Indeed, India did not go on to utilise humanitarian intervention as a legal basis for its action and sought to rely on the doctrine of self-defence instead.  [12]   This pattern was repeated in many more incidents that occurred. Tanzania intervened militarily in Uganda in 1979 to enable rebels there to overthrow the repressive leader Idi Amin.  [13]  In 1978 Vietnam invaded Cambodia stating that it wished to prevent Cambodia from suffering at the hands of its government. Both stated that they wished to help the citizens of the respective countries they intervened in. This was however continuously rejected by the international community, with France and the US specifically stating that human rights violations did not justify the use of force, thus clearly indicating that it was not accepted at that time that humanitarian intervention was considered to be a legal basis for intervention.  [14]   Chronologically, the next major incident of humanitarian intervention that took place was that of Australian intervention in East Timor. Rebels in East Timor seeking to establish it as in independent country were facing repression from the state of Indonesia resisting independence. Human rights violations in the situation ensued resulting in several UN Resolutions calling for peace and eventually in a UN referendum, the results of which indicated that the majority of people wished for independence. The Australian government thus took the lead in providing military assistance to East Timor to repel Indonesian presence and establish an independent state.  [15]  In doing so, the Australian government expressly relied on the right to humanitarian intervention.What must be pointed out however is that the UN was involved in that situation, and most commentators regard that the intervention in East Timor is more akin to an incident where the UN regulates force for purposes of humanitari an intervention rather than when the right is employed unilaterally by a state.  [16]  Thus, the intervention in East Timor was seen to be highly similar to the US intervention in Somalia in 1992 which had been acted upon only after the UN had specifically called for humanitarian intervention.  [17]   Perhaps the most famous incident of humanitarian intervention was that in Kosovo. Kosovo, now an independent country, used to be part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and consisted of a mix of ethnicities, with 90% being ethnical Albanians and the minority being Serbians. In the 1990s the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia started to break up with each different country announcing its independence. The state of Kosovo also suggested breaking off from the FRY, to regain the independence Kosovo once had before Yugoslavia was established in the first place. This was met by much resistance from the Serbians both in Serbia and in Kosovo. A regime of ethnic cleansing of the Albanians in Kosovo started to prevent the calls and efforts by those peoples to make Kosovo an independent country and one of the worlds worst conflicts started, with human rights violations reaching epidemic proportions.  [18]   This matter was brought to the attention of the Security Council, and on 31 March 1998 it adopted Resolution 1160,  [19]  which imposed an arms embargo on the FRY and called for it to work with the Kosovar Albanians to achieve a peaceful solution to the matter. Following this however the violence in Kosovo only intensified and Resolution 1199 was adopted which determined that the situation in Kosovo amounted to a threat to peace and security in the region.  [20]  The problem was however the presence of the veto in the Security Council. Every permanent member of the Security Council has the right to veto any Security Council resolutions made. Russia being a major part of the former Soviet Union that existed was highly reluctant to take any action further to the two resolutions already adopted against the FRY and indicated that it would use its veto if any resolution were attempted to be passed which authorised military measures to be taken against the FRY. There was little cha nce that the Security Council would therefore be able to take action in response to the situation that was ongoing in Kosovo.  [21]   As a result of this, NATO states came together to discuss military intervention in Kosovo. NATO declared that the FRY had not complied with Resolution 1199 and that NATO would therefore institute military action against Russia. Extensive military action was undertaken via an aerial campaign, attacking FRY forces both in Kosovo and in the FRY itself to attempt to stop the attacks that were taking place against Kosovo. The campaign commenced ion 23 March 1999 and did not end several months later, on 10 June 1999 when the FRY forces agreed to a case-fire and signed the military-technical agreement with NATO on 9 June 1999.  [22]   There was no doubt that the military action undertaken by NATO had been successful in bringing peace to the region. Despite the fact that there was no apparent basis at the time for military action, there was no international objection to the force used (other than by the states to whom the military action was targeted against). It was apparently accepted that the action undertaken by NATO was lawful.  [23]  From this, one can deduct that there must have been a valid theoretical underlying to the force taken. It was clear that the action was not authorised under the Security Council resolutions, for while the resolutions were relied on in justifying the military action undertaken, it was always accepted that the resolutions did not authorise military force and indeed did not attempt to do so because of the veto that would be exercised by Russia. There was no question that the Serb forces had carried out an armed attack against NATO countries or anyone in the region of NATO countries and so the doctrines of self-defence or collective self-defence could not be relied on. The only remaining doctrine that could have possibly justified the military force undertaken by NATO forces was therefore that of humanitarian intervention. Indeed, the situation in Kosovo appears to be the one that elevated the doctrine of humanitarian intervention from what was seen to be a less than credible basis of justification of use of force to one that was apparently widely accepted.  [24]   Thus commentators who point out that the doctrine was accepted as applying to the case of Kosovo point to the wide apparent acceptance of the international community that the acts of NATO in Kosovo were legal. In March 1999 the states of Belarus and Russia introduced a draft resolution to the Security Council which stated that the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia was illegal. This was rejected by a majority of 12 votes. In 1999, the UN Commission on Human Rights passed a resolution finding that the intervention by NATO had been lawful, with only Russia and Cuba (both communist states) finding against such a resolution.  [25]   Kosovo is therefore at least one incident where the right to humanitarian intervention was both relied on and appears to have been accepted. The difficulty lies in the fact that while the military action undertaken against Kosovo was considered to be morally justified, concerns continue to be expressed by academic commentators that the incident should not be seen to act as precedent, for doing so would effectively widen the category of exceptions that existed in relation to the use of force and undermine the well-established rules of Article 2(4).  [26]   Perhaps the next most famous incident where the right of humanitarian intervention was relied on, but one where the basis of such a right was considered to be much more contentious, was that of Iraq.  [27]  Coalition military intervention in Iraq in 2003 was one of the most contentious use of force that took place and the legality of the war continues to be debated to the current day. Different bases were offered by the coalition states that went to war at different times. Saddam Husseins brutal treatment of his people and the human rights violations that they had suffered were often pointed to when the rhetoric on whether a war should take place was entered into.  [28]  What is notable however was that although apparently doing so in the period preceding the war, neither the US nor the UK legally relied on the doctrine of humanitarian intervention to justify its war in Iraq. Rather, the UK relied on interpretation of Security Council resolutions while the US argued for the r ight of self-defence, both pointing to the fact that Iraq was in possession of weapons of self-destruction (an assertion which was later discovered to be invalid).  [29]  The fact that humanitarian intervention was not relied on despite the fact that Iraq was suffering a humanitarian catastrophe and had been for several years indicates that neither of the worlds leading states considered that the right to humanitarian intervention had established itself as a legal norm and would not, formally at least, be accepted by the international community as a bass for military intervention. Responsibility to protect The humanitarian intervention doctrine has evolved in recent times and international law has come to develop the responsibility to protect doctrine, often referred to as the R2P doctrine. The very existence of this doctrine supports the idea that humanitarian intervention is not only regarded as a moral justification of the use of force in states where human rights violations are being committed, but is a positive duty on the international community to act and intervene in states where there is inadequate respect for human rights. UN Secretary General Kofi Anan brought the tensions that were apparent behind the prohibition on the use of force in Article 2(4) and the fact that intervention was required as a result of increasing human rights violations that were seen around the world to the fore in 1999. At that date, the atrocities in Rwanda were being discussed by the international community, and the committee that had been set up to investigate how the genocide in Rwanda had taken place came back with reports attributing much blame to the UN for failing to take action in Rwanda in what was seen as a preventable genocide.  [30]  Annan therefore requested the General Assembly to answer the question of: if humanitarian intervention is, indeed an unacceptable assault on sovereignty, how should we response to Rwanda, to a Srebrenica to gross and systematic violations of human rights?.  [31]   The Canadian government in response to this question set up the ICISS. In 2001 the ICISS produced a report where the doctrine of the responsibility to protect was advanced.  [32]  In 2004, the High-Level Panel on threats, challenges and changes that had been set up by the UN secretary-General stated that the R2P doctrine was an emerging norm of collective international responsibility to protect.  [33]  The Secretary-General went on to endorse this finding. In a 2005 world summit, the R2P doctrine was expressly accepted and referred to.  [34]   Perhaps the most pertinent recognition of the R2P doctrine is that the Security Council specifically referred to the doctrine in Resolution 1674 (2006) when it was regarding the question of how civilians in armed conflicts should be protected.  [35]  The Resolution referred to the R2P doctrine as a doctrine of international law apparently conferring upon it a status of customary international law or otherwise. The problem with the fact that R2P now appears to be part of international law is the emergence of further questions, namely what the relationship of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention with the R2P doctrine is. Is the R2P doctrine simply any other way of describing humanitarian intervention? Or are the two concepts entirely different? If so, is humanitarian intervention subject to the doctrine of R2P? Debate on these questions commenced ever since the R2P doctrine was put forward and has ensued ever since. One might consider that the R2P doctrine is in fact simply another way of describing the doctrine of humanitarian intervention, and one that seeks to grant the doctrine a more elevated status. The language of responsibility no doubt confers more powers than the language of rights does for while the latter grants states discretion in whether to exercise the particular rights of concern, the former does not. If one were to accept such an argument, then the fact that R2P now appears to be a doctrine of international law means that humanitarian intervention is also a rule of international law and such intervention legalises use of force in other states. However, the ICISSs formulation of the R2P doctrine is on the basis that it is an entirely different concept to the doctrine of humanitarian intervention. The ICISS report thus stated that humanitarian intervention should not be seen to be the prime concern in the modern world where catastrophic human rights violations such as Rwanda were taking place. The Commission argued that there was a need for a new doctrine, which governed the need to intervene in the affairs of states who committed human rights violations. Such a doctrine should not be seen as a right to intervene that was granted to the intervening state, as humanitarian intervention might do, but rather as a responsibility on other states to intervene as a result of the right of the state that was suffering human rights violations to be protected.  [36]   R2P also introduced a new method of dealing with the concept of state sovereignty. As set out above, the doctrine of humanitarian intervention does not tie in well with the concept of state sovereignty, for it effectively allows a sate to intervene in another states affairs on the ground that the former state is of the opinion that the latter states treatment of its own citizen is in accurate. Such a concept can be seen to go against the very idea of equality of states in international law.  [37]  The R2P doctrine proposes to deal with this tension by proposing that the concept of state sovereignty to control its citizens with that of sovereignty as responsibility to protect its citizens. Once again, there was a shift from rights to responsibility. The R2P doctrine effectively re-characterises the conception of state sovereignty as one that is a right of governments to control their citizens, to one where there is a duty on governments to protect its citizens, and rights are gran ted to citizens to be protected. Where these rights were not being complied with and a government was not protecting its citizens and was in fact committing human rights violations against it, then the sovereignty to protect was not being effected and this sovereignty did not exist. As such, any exercise of the R2P doctrine through the use of military force would not contravene any idea of sovereignty.  [38]   Such a proposal can be commended for its view of the principle of state sovereignty. The fact is that the concept of state sovereignty and the idea that a state is able to control its citizens as it wishes is one that while remaining in theory can be seen not to have continued on an international basis. International law has long adjudicated to govern the relationship of a state and its individuals. A prime example of this can be seen to be in international human rights protections which essentially impose standards on states with regards to a states treatment of its citizens which must be complied with.  [39]  The very concept of the international community and of the United Nations necessitates a limiting of the concept of state sovereignty. The reformulation of the concept of state sovereignty from one which sees sovereignty as control to that to protect might be considered to be ingenious in that it resolves the theoretical tensions that exist between the right to military in tervention in states where human rights violations are committed and sovereignty of that state. However, the fact is that the concept of sovereignty as sovereignty to protect still poses the same problems that the traditional concept of state sovereignty controls: Sovereignty to protect allows a third state to intervene in a states matters when protection of citizens is not being undertaken adequately. Which state is to decide however when citizens protection is being undertaken adequately and when it is not? To what extent does the protection of citizens in a state have to be undermined before military action can be allowed in that state?  [40]   Thus, whether or not R2P is the same or a different doctrine to that of humanitarian intervention, the same difficulties that are faced by humanitarian intervention proponents remain, and perhaps the most major of these problems is the wide floodgates the idea of a responsibility to protect opens. Practical incidents have shown how in the past humanitarian intervention has wrongfully been used by states, often on a post-facto basis, to justify use of force and intervention in other states. The R2P doctrine in fact provides for a wider scope of humanitarian intervention for as pointed out above, a responsibility imposes a larger duty and therefore a larger scope of power on states to take action than a right to intervene does, and the R2P doctrine therefore arguably exacerbates the problem that humanitarian intervention traditionally faced. In this vein however it must be noted that the proponents of the R2P doctrine point out that unlike humanitarian intervention, the R2P would impose a duty on states to employ a wide range of measures, along a continuum, to regulate states behaviour. Thus the R2P doctrine envisaged that preventative measures should be used to prevent human rights atrocities, and duties included rebuilding societies that had been affected by human rights violations. Such a doctrine is therefore very commendable in theory.  [41]   Furthermore, it must be pointed out that the R2P doctrine apparently appears to have been envisaged to be utilised within the provisions of the Security Council rather than impose duties or rights on states to act on a unilateral basis to military intervene in other countries. If that is the case, then the R2P doctrine has not really helped towards resolving the questions surrounding humanitarian intervention at all.  [42]   Conclusion The above discussion has shown that there are many questions regarding the legality of humanitarian intervention in international law as a justification for use of force in another state. There is little doubt that in the past the doctrine was not regarded as a valid justification for the use of force. Thus the international community tended to reject attempts by states to justify use of force with the concept of humanitarian intervention, not least because such justification was often posed on an ex facto basis and was usually tied in with some other form of justification that was put forward. The position appeared to change however in the NATO intervention in Kosovo when the international world apparently accepted the legality of the action. The war in Iraq in 2003 however appeared to reverse the position once again, when attempts to rely on humanitarian protection were rejected almost from the outset and indeed the coalition states eventually went on to rely on other basses to jus tify the use of force that was undertaken. The doctrine of humanitarian intervention does have its proponents and certainly is a very attractive concept in international law. In the writers view however the dangers posed by the doctrine outweigh the advantages that it offers. The doctrine effectively widens the scope of exceptions that exist to Article 2(4) and allows states to unilaterally take force. This undermines not only the concept of state sovereignty but also the purpose of the United Nations and the Security Council as being relevant bodies to regulate international peace and security. The R2P doctrine that has been put forward as a doctrine of international law is in many ways preferable to that of humanitarian intervention. The R2P doctrine provides for rights of citizens rather than rights of states and importantly it envisages that military action will be undertaken by the Security Council rather than on a unilateral basis. The writer is therefore of the opinion that the R2P doctrine should be distinguished from the idea of humanitarian intervention R2P should be recognised as a principle of international law and one that allows the Security Council to take military action in state when required. It should not however be seen to extend the doctrine of humanitarian protection. Indeed it is the writers view that humanitarian protection does not exist as a legal right in international law, both in theory and in practise. The doctrine goes against all ideas of state sovereignty and against the prohibition of the use of force in general. Furthermore, states do not appear to have accepted that the doctrine is a norm of law. In this vein, the case of Kosovo can be considered to be an exception in international law.  [43]  In that case, the only reason the Security Council did not take action was because of the presence of the Russian veto, but otherwise there was international consensus that military action should

The Colorado Rivers Help and Hindrance of Settlement in the Western United States :: Colorado River Geography American History Essays

The Colorado River's Help and Hindrance of Settlement in the Western United States Geographers can tell you that the one thing that most rivers and their adjacent flood plains in the world have in common is that they have rich histories associated with human settlement and development. This especially true in arid regions which are very dependent upon water. Two excellent examples are the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers which show use the relationship between rivers and concentrations of people. However, the Colorado River is not such a good example along most segments of its course. There is no continuous transportation system that parallels the rivers course, and settlements are clustered. The rugged terrain and entrenched river channels are the major reasons for sparse human settlement. We ask ourselves, did the Colorado River help or hinder settlement in the Western United States? As settlers began to move westward, the Southwest was considered to be a place to avoid. Few considered it a place to traverse, to spread Christianity, and a possible source of furs or mineral wealth. Finding a reliable or accessible water source, and timber for building was difficult to find. There was a lack of land that could be irrigated easily. By the turn of the century, most present day cities and towns were already established. Trails, roads, and railroads linked several areas with neighboring regions. Although the Colorado River drainage system was still not integrated. In the mid 1900’s many dams had been built to harness and use the water. A new phase of development occurred at the end of the second World War. There was a large emphasis on recreation, tourism, and environmental preservation. The terrain of the Colorado River is very unique. It consists of Wet Upper Slopes, Irregular Transition Plains and Hills, Deep Canyonlands, and the Dry Lower Plains. Wet Upper Slopes: Consist of numerous streams that feed into the Colorado River from stream cut canyons, small flat floored valleys often occupied by alpine lakes and adjacent steep walled mountain peaks. These areas are heavily forested and contain swiftly flowing streams, rapids, and waterfalls. These areas have little commercial value except as watershed, wildlife habitat, forest land, and destinations for hikers, fishermen, and mountaineers. Irregular Transition Plains and Hills: These areas are favorable for traditional economic development. It consists of river valleys with adequate flat land to support farms and ranches. Due to the rolling hills, low plateaus, and mountain slopes, livestock grazing is common.

Hamlet - The Theme of Revenge Essay example -- William Shakespeare

â€Å"Hamlet,† Critical Essay Alexander Pope believed that, â€Å"to be angry is to revenge the faults of others on ourselves.† I think this is pertinent to â€Å"Hamlet,† by William Shakespeare because the main character is portrayed to bring great mental suffering upon himself in his search for revenge. Shakespeare enhances the reader’s appreciation of the play by effectively conveying its theme of revenge through characterization and plot in addition to other literary techniques. â€Å"Hamlet,† tells the story of a Danish prince who aims to avenge his father’s murder after his ghost appears before Hamlet and reveals that he was murdered by his own brother. To Hamlet’s disgust, his uncle, Claudius, has stolen Hamlet’s place as King by marrying the prince’s mother, Gertrude. In Hamlet’s search for the truth, he makes the fatal error of stabbing Polonius, the King’s advisor. Polonius’ death causes his daughter, who is Hamlet’s former lover, to go insane. Polonius’ son, Laertes, decides to take revenge upon Hamlet for his father, and Claudius sees an opportunity to get rid of his nephew. He sets up a fencing match between Hamlet and Laertes, then poisons Hamlet’s drink and Laertes’ rapier. Hamlet needs verification of his uncle’s murder of the former king before he can take revenge upon him, as he has a fear of the metaphysical consequences of murdering a man who has done nothing wrong. He seems to be wary of his father’s ghost and the allegations it makes about Claudius’ regicide. The ghost first appears in the play before Horatio, who is Hamlet’s friend, and two guards of Elsinore castle. Hamlet is then told by his father’s ghost to avenge his death after he follows the spirit into the forest. In Elizabethan times, when Hamlet was writte... ...enges his father’s death, the consequences are harsh. He has to watch his mother die and realises he has used Laertes own weapon to kill him. His death is, of course, the saddest consequence of his revenge. Hamlet’s murder of Claudius improves the reader’s appreciation of the text as they understand that although Hamlet is moribund, he has avenged his father’s murder, which is what he set out to do in the first place. I think that â€Å"Hamlet,† is a thought provoking play. It made me think about what I would do in Hamlet’s situation, and how I would handle the burden of vengeance of a loved one’s murder. I believe that although times have changed significantly since the first performance of â€Å"Hamlet,† in 1607, the themes are still relevant to audiences today. Shakespeare effectively depicts many different aspects of revenge in an interesting and fascinating way.

Management Information Systems Essay -- essays research papers

Management Information System Statistical Research and Methods for Management Decision Abstract In this study, choices of respondent are evaluated to aid the Authority in preparing the scope of services to be used in an RFP for the selection of a Firm able to provide IT Management System services. Respondents participated in focus group as well as answer questions to a questionnaire that was tabulated that will aid in the sampling of data collection and data analysis. Problem Statement:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Housing Authority of the City of Camden (HACC) needs to upgrade the Management Information Systems (MIS) to address the constant changes of the organization. Presently, HACC is using a system called Emphasys Flex Systems. Due to the requirement for a competitive procurement process, HACC is presently preparing to put together a Request for Proposal (RFP) to obtain a qualified firm to provide IT Technical Support to HACC’s MIS Department for maintaining the network system. In order to identify these needs, a questionnaire was developed and completed by staff in key areas. Our intention is to learn through this study the areas of deficiencies that are hindering the ability of the staff to use to the present system to full capacity as well as to determine future upgrades necessary to keep up with on going growth of the agency. Three main areas that were identified as a problem to staff were as follows: HACC Hardware is outdated: One of the main concerns expressed thus far, is that the desktops, server hardware and the software used by the agency are outdated and need to be replaced. Staff are not able to properly utilize the present system due to the current hardware infrastructure. Community Management offices do not have enough PC’S able to properly operate:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Staff offices at the Community Management Offices include the Community Managers, the Maintenance Supervisors, and community clerical staff. Currently, staff members must take turns using the only computer available for running Emphasys Flex. HACC staff is unable to get meaningful reports from Emphasys Flex System: HACC staff enters data into Emphasys System on a daily basis but the reports supplied do not provide the information needed. Method:... ...ning, research, and network and application security. A cursory review of the responses helped to identify critical issues that have been occurring within our information systems and more detailed questions may be necessary to draw statistical relevance. References Krishnamoorthy, K. & Thomson, J. (2002). Hypothesis testing about proportions in two finite populations. The American Statistician, 56(3), 215-222. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on February 24, 2004 from ProQuest. Parkhurst, D. F. (2000). Statistical significance tests: Equivalence and reverse tests should reduce misinterpretation. Bioscience, 51(12), 1051-1057. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on February 24, 2004 from ProQuest. Safir, A., Scheuren, F. & Wang, K. (2000). Survey methods and data reliability, 1997 and 1999. Retrieved on February 24, 2004 from the Urban Institute at http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=310567. Sterne, J. A. C. & Smith G. D. (2001). Sifting the evidence--what's wrong with significance tests? Physical Therapy, 81(8), 1464-1469. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on February 24, 2004 from ProQuest. Management Information Systems Essay -- essays research papers Management Information System Statistical Research and Methods for Management Decision Abstract In this study, choices of respondent are evaluated to aid the Authority in preparing the scope of services to be used in an RFP for the selection of a Firm able to provide IT Management System services. Respondents participated in focus group as well as answer questions to a questionnaire that was tabulated that will aid in the sampling of data collection and data analysis. Problem Statement:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Housing Authority of the City of Camden (HACC) needs to upgrade the Management Information Systems (MIS) to address the constant changes of the organization. Presently, HACC is using a system called Emphasys Flex Systems. Due to the requirement for a competitive procurement process, HACC is presently preparing to put together a Request for Proposal (RFP) to obtain a qualified firm to provide IT Technical Support to HACC’s MIS Department for maintaining the network system. In order to identify these needs, a questionnaire was developed and completed by staff in key areas. Our intention is to learn through this study the areas of deficiencies that are hindering the ability of the staff to use to the present system to full capacity as well as to determine future upgrades necessary to keep up with on going growth of the agency. Three main areas that were identified as a problem to staff were as follows: HACC Hardware is outdated: One of the main concerns expressed thus far, is that the desktops, server hardware and the software used by the agency are outdated and need to be replaced. Staff are not able to properly utilize the present system due to the current hardware infrastructure. Community Management offices do not have enough PC’S able to properly operate:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Staff offices at the Community Management Offices include the Community Managers, the Maintenance Supervisors, and community clerical staff. Currently, staff members must take turns using the only computer available for running Emphasys Flex. HACC staff is unable to get meaningful reports from Emphasys Flex System: HACC staff enters data into Emphasys System on a daily basis but the reports supplied do not provide the information needed. Method:... ...ning, research, and network and application security. A cursory review of the responses helped to identify critical issues that have been occurring within our information systems and more detailed questions may be necessary to draw statistical relevance. References Krishnamoorthy, K. & Thomson, J. (2002). Hypothesis testing about proportions in two finite populations. The American Statistician, 56(3), 215-222. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on February 24, 2004 from ProQuest. Parkhurst, D. F. (2000). Statistical significance tests: Equivalence and reverse tests should reduce misinterpretation. Bioscience, 51(12), 1051-1057. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on February 24, 2004 from ProQuest. Safir, A., Scheuren, F. & Wang, K. (2000). Survey methods and data reliability, 1997 and 1999. Retrieved on February 24, 2004 from the Urban Institute at http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=310567. Sterne, J. A. C. & Smith G. D. (2001). Sifting the evidence--what's wrong with significance tests? Physical Therapy, 81(8), 1464-1469. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   on February 24, 2004 from ProQuest.

Neurophysiology Study Guide

Neurophysiology Study Guide 1. Define â€Å"equilibrium potential†. Why is the resting potential closer to the potassium equilibrium potential (EK+) than the sodium potential (ENa+)? The equilibrium potential is the point at which the force exerted on an ion by electrostatic and concentration gradient forces are balanced, and there is no net movement of that ion. The resting potential is closer to EK+ than ENa+ because the cell membrane is more permeable to potassium than sodium. 2. How would ENa+ change following an increase in the external concentration of sodium?Would the resting potential be affected significantly? If the external concentration of sodium was increased, the concentration gradient driving the movement of sodium would be increased more sodium would diffuse into the cell and would reduce some of the negative charge on the inner surface of the lipid bilayer. This would serve to decrease (make less negative) the resting potential, but would not affect it signifi cantly since the membrane is much more permeable to K. 3. Does any net Ionic current flow at the resting potential?What are the relationships among â€Å"passive† and â€Å"pump†ionic currents at the resting potential? There is no net ionic current flow at the resting potential. However, since neither Na+ nor K+ is at equilibrium, there is a net flow of each across the membrane. The Na-K pump generates the concentration difference that sustains the resting potential: but it is the passive ionic flow that creates the resting potential. Pump currents balance passive currents (diffusion) at the resting potential. 3. Define â€Å"electrogenic† and â€Å"neutral† pumps.What role does the Na-K pump play in the resting potential? An electrogenic pump creates a potential difference across the membrane – positive and negative charges are not transported across the membrane in equal amounts. Neutral pumps are balanced according to charge – there is no potential difference created. The Na-K pump generates the concentration difference that sustains the resting potential. 5. Describe the sequence of ionic events and their effect upon the resting potential following lockade of the Na-K pump, or following an increase in extracellular potassium or sodium. When the Na-K pump is blocked by an agent such as oubain or digitalis, Na+ and K+ will continue to diffuse passively across the cell membrane down their respective gradients. After a while, intracellular [Na] will increase and intracellular [K] will decrease. The reduced [K] gradient will reduce K efflux through nongated channels; therefore, the resting potential will depolarize. The reduced [Na] gradient will have little effect on the resting potential.If extracellular [K+ ] is increased, the driving force for potassium diffusion out of the cell will decrease, and the resting potential will become less negative (depolarized). If extracellular [Na+ ] is increased, the driving force f or sodium movement into the cell will increase with a resultant slight depolarization, but there will be no significant change in resting potential. Na+ -K+ ATPase pump activity Y [[Na+]in Y [Na+]O/ [Na+]i Y ENa+ Y (EM – ENa+) Y INa+ Y Conduction velocity and Depolarized threshold 6.Explain the interrelationships between ionic and capacitive currents during postsynaptic potentials or during an action potential. Ionic current is the flow of ions through channels into or out of the cell. Capacitive current is the movement of charges, usually positive, up to or away from the cell membrane. During an excitatory postsynaptic potential or an action potential, there is an initial ionic current flow into the cell, followed by a capacitive current out of the cell, which serves to depolarize the membrane potential at a distance. The current loop forms a â€Å"local circuit. † 7.Define â€Å"time constant†. How is it calculated and why is it important for integration of electrical activity at the axon's initial segment? The time constant is the amount of time it takes for EM (membrane potential) to decay to 1/e of its initial strength (37%). It is equal to resistance times capacitance. It is important for integration at the initial segment because it determines whether temporal summation can take place – a long time constant means slow decay which allows summation to occur; a short time constant means fast decay, and therefore no summation. 8. Define â€Å"length constant'.How does it depend upon axon diameter, axial resistance and membrane resistance; what does it suggest about the relative effectiveness of synapses on the soma versus synapses on the dendrites? The length (or space) constant is the distance that a signal can travel before falling to 1/e (37%) of its initial magnitude. It is proportional to the square root of the diameter of the fiber and to membrane resistance, and inversely proportional to axial resistance. The higher the membrane resistance, the farther the signal will go. The larger the length constant, the slower the signal decay.This suggests that synapses on the soma are more likely to undergo spatial summation than dendritic synapses. 9. Define â€Å"graded potentials†. How do these differ from action potentials? A graded potential is one in which the amplitude is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus. It has no refractory period and is a local potential – i. e. it is not actively conducted and spreads only passively. Graded potentials can be either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing and can add. Action potentials cannot add, have refractory periods are all or none, and are propagated actively. 0. Explain the shape of a â€Å"strength duration† curve. Define â€Å"rheobase† and â€Å"chronaxie† The shape of the strength-duration curve shows that initiation of an action potential is dependent on both the amplitude and the duration of a stimulus. Rheobase is the minimum effective stimulus strength. Chronaxie is the duration of the stimulus that is required to just reach threshold when the stimulus amplitude is twice rheobase. 11. Explain in detail how an action potential is generated. What types of channels tend to open as the membrane potential depolarizes?Draw a graph illustrating how sodium and potassium conductances change (with time) during an action potential. When the membrane is depolarized, voltage sensitive Na+ channels open allowing Na+ to enter the cell down its electrochemical gradient This entry of Na+ further depolarizes the cell, resulting in the opening of more Na+ channels: thus allowing more Na+ to enter, and so on. When the influx of Na+ exceeds the efflux of K+ , threshold is exceeded and the response becomes regenerative, leading to the depolarizing or rising phase of the action potential.After a period of time the Na+ channels inactivate and close: blocking further entry of Na+ through these channels. Also after a delay, voltage-sensitive K+ channels open, allowing K+ to leave the cell, traveling down its electrochemical gradient. The inactivation of the Na+ channels coupled with the opening of the K+ channels result in the repolarization of the membrane potential 12. How do the time courses of sodium and potassium conductances differ during a maintained depolarization? A maintained depolarization causes Na+ inactivation (reduces PNa+) and hence increases (depolarizes) the threshold potential.In addition, compared with the Na+ activation process, the K+ activation process (increased PK+ ) is delayed and persists as long as the depolarization is maintained. 13. Define â€Å"sodium inactivation†. How does it explain the â€Å"absolute† and â€Å"relative† refractory periods, or â€Å"accommodation†? How do potassium ions play a role in these processes? What limits a neuron's maximum rate of firing? There are two ‘gates' on the voltage gated sodium channels. As the membrane is depolarized, sodium channels open. When the membrane is fully depolarized, sodium channels become inactivated.Sodium inactivation is high at the peak of the action potential and is maximal about the time that the repolarization phase intersects the zero potential. It is this process and the fact that most potassium channels are open that account for the absolute refractory period. The relative refractory period is the gradual recovery of Na+ channels from the inactivation process. Accommodation is also related to sodium inactivation because a slow depolarization will cause the Na+ channels to go directly from the closed state to the inactivated state. A neuron’s maximum rate of firing is limited by the absolute refractory period. 4. What role does the Na+ -K+ pump play in the action potential? How is the action potential affected by alterations in the concentration of extracellular Na+ or K+ Action potentials arise from the passive movement of ion s down their electrochemical gradients. The Na+-K+ pump creates the electrochemical gradients that sustain the resting potential and generate the action potential. Alterations in the concentration of extracellular K+ will cause fluctuations in the resting potential that will decrease or increase the likelihood of an action potential being generated.Alterations of extracellular Na will increase or decrease the conduction velocity of action potentials as well as the likelihood of an action potential being generated. 15. Explain the mechanism for propagation of an action potential in an unmyelinated nerve or in a myelinated nerve. Why is the latter much faster? What factors affect conduction velocity? Once an action potential has been initiated, the inward Na+ current depolarizes the membrane toward ENa+ . This results in a potential difference between this active region and the adjacent inactive region, which is still near EK+ .Hence, current will flow between the active and adjacent inactive region, depolarizing the inactive region. The resulting increase in intracellular Na+ leads to an outward capacitive current and depolarization of this region of membrane. When the depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential will be initiated in this region of the membrane. In an unmyelinated nerve, this is a continual process moving down the membrane. In a myelinated nerve, this process occurs only at the node of Ranvier. Myelinated nerves have faster conduction velocities because the action potential â€Å"jumps' from node to node, which may be up to 2 mm apart.Conduction velocity is affected by membrane capacitance and by membrane and axoplasm resistances. Myelin increases membrane resistance, thereby constraining incoming positive charge to move down the axon. Myelin reduces membrane capacitance; this reduces the amount of negative charge that must be neutralized to reach threshold. Axoplasm resistance is inversely proportional to axon diameter. Thus, conduct ion velocity increases with fiber diameter,. 16. Describe the process of â€Å"saltatory† conduction. Why is it advantageous? Explain how and why conduction velocity and the length (space) constant are affected by demyelinating iseases. Saltatory conduction is the discontinuous propagation (jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next) of an action potential along a myelinated nerve. Saltatory conduction arises in part from the properties of the myelin sheath, which increases the membrane resistance and decreases the capacitance in the internodal region; the result is an increase in current flow down the core of the axon. In addition the voltage-sensitive Na+ channels responsible for the generation of the action potential are localized only at the nodes.This type of conduction makes possible rapid precise control of muscle contraction. In demyelinating diseases conduction velocity and the length constant are reduced in the unmyelinated areas. The length constant is proportion al to membrane resistance and when the myelin is destroyed, the resistance at that point decreases and therefore the length constant decreases. Because of increase capacitance and negative charge on the inner surface of the membranes, propagation of the signal takes place continuously instead of jumping from node to node; therefore, conduction velocity is decreased. 7. What are the three functions of a sensory receptor? 1) Transduction of the environmental signal Energy Y Change in membrane potential 2) Amplification of the environmental signal 3) Transmission of the environmental signal to the CNS 18. How does a â€Å"receptor potential† or â€Å"generator potential† differ from an action potential? A receptor or generator potential is a graded potential that is proportional to the stimulus. It is not a function of the membrane potential and thus is not regenerative like an action potential.It has no refractory period and, therefore, is additive. It is â€Å"localâ⠂¬  and propagated. Finally, the ion channels producing the receptor/generator potentials are different from those underlying the action potential; they are not voltage gated. 19. Explain how an action potential is initiated in a sensory nerve. What conditions are necessary for repetitive firing? How does the firing frequency depend upon the amplitude of the generator potential? Upon the intensity of the stimulus? A sensory nerve action potential begins with the receipt of an appropriate environmental signal.The stimulus causes a localized increase in the permeability of the nerve terminal to Na+ . The resulting net inward positive ionic current depolarizes the nerve terminal. This current spreads passively along the axon terminal producing a depolarizing outward capacitive current The outward capacitive current, in turn. may induce an action potential in a region of the nerve with a low threshold for generating an action potential- usually at the first node of Ranvier in myelinate d nerves. A maintained stimulus is necessary for repetitive firing.The firing frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the generator potential and the intensity of the stimulus. 19. Define â€Å"sensory adaptation†. Name two classes of receptors. What type of information about the stimulus is derived from each? Give examples. Sensory adaptation is the decline in response that occurs over time when a receptor is subjected to a constant stimulus. There are two types of receptor classifications: slowly adapting (tonic) receptors and rapidly adapting (phasic) receptors. Slowly adapting receptors provide information about the rate of change of a stimulus as well as the magnitude and duration.This type of receptor is seen in touch, pressure, hair cells for hearing and vestibular function, muscle spindle receptors, Golgi tendon organs and in baroreceptors. Rapidly adapting receptors are unable to maintain a sustained depolarization, despite sustained stimulation. They function as rate-detectors providing information about the rate of change of the environmental signal. Rapidly adapting receptors are found in the Pacinian corpuscles and skin hair receptors. 19. Describe in detail the steps involved in the release and degradation of ACh at the neuromuscular junction. What factors regulate how much ACh is released?Chemical synaptic transmission is initiated by a depolarization of the presynaptic element and the subsequent influx of Ca++ ions into the nerve terminal through voltage-dependent Ca++ channels. Ca++ facilitates contact of synaptic vesicles with the terminal membrane, which triggers the synchronous release of several thousands of transmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft. The ACh binds to its receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. After dissociating from the receptor, ACh is degraded by acetylcholinesterase (produced by ) 19. Define â€Å"quantal† release and â€Å"miniature† end-plate potential.How are the two related? Quantal r elease refers to the release of neurotransmitters in discrete packets or vesicles. A single vesicle contains about 5-10,000 ACh molecules, and is capable of depolarizing the membrane about 1mV. The small depolarization caused by the spontaneous release of a few vesicles is called a miniature end plate potential. Spontaneous release of vesicles occurs at a rate of about 1/sec. MEPP's may be important in maintaining the integrity of the muscle fiber. 19. Discuss the â€Å"end-plate† potential (EPP), including its characteristics and underlining mechanisms.Why are its amplitude and duration limited? How does it differ from an action potential? The end-plate potential is the postsynaptic potential produced at motor end plate. The EPP occurs as the result of ACh binding to its receptors on end-plate membrane and opening the chemically gated channels located there. The EPP is a graded potential – the magnitude of the EPP is proportional to the number of channels opened by AC h – and spreads only passively. The EPP acts as a stimulus for the production of an action potential on the muscle membrane contiguous to the end-plate membrane.The amplitude and duration of the EPP may be limited by the amount of neurotransmitter released, or by the number of receptors present, or by the normal activity of AChEase. The EPP differs from an action potential in the same ways that other graded potentials do. 19. How are action potentials initiated at the muscle end plate? What is the ratio of' the number of muscle action potentials to motor neuron action potentials (output: input)? Action potentials are initiated in the region of the muscle end plate when the membrane is depolarized by the electrotonically spreading EPP.The ratio of the number of muscle action potentials to motor neuron action potentials (output: input) is 1:1. 19. What are chemically gated ion channels? Give an example. How do such channels differ from voltage-gated channels? Chemically-gated i on channels are those channels which open only in response to the binding of a chemical neurotransmitter, hormone or other chemicals and not in response to membrane depolarization as voltage-gated channels do. The channel associated with the ACh receptor is a chemically-gated ion channel: 26.Compare and contrast the characteristics of chemical and electrical synaptic transmission. Electrical synaptic transmission is mediated by gap junctions. The gap junctions provide a pathway for cytoplasmic continuity. As a result, a depolarization (or hyperpolarization) produced in the presynaptic terminal produces a change in potential in the postsynaptic terminal. There is minimal synaptic delay and the transmission can spread bidirectionally. Electrical junctions are found in the nervous system, as well as smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.Chemical synaptic transmission occurs between two cell membranes separated by a synaptic cleft. The presynaptic terminal contains a high concentration of mi tochondria and synaptic vesicles and there is a characteristic thickening of the postsynaptic membrane. Since the neurotransmitter must diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to its receptor, there is delay of about 0. 5 – 1 msec between the initiation of an action potential in the presynaptic terminal and a potential change in the postsynaptic terminal. Chemical transmission is generally unidirectional.

AIDS Case Study Essay

Client Profile: Mr. Thomas is a 42 year old man admitted to the hospital with complaints of shortness of breath, fever, fatigue and oral thrush. The health care provider reviews the laboratory and diagnostic tests with Mr. Thomas and informs him he has pneumonia and is HIV positive. Mr. Thomas believes that he contracted HIV while involved in an affair with another woman three years ago. He is afraid to tell his wife, knowing she will be angry and that she may leave him. Case Study: The nurse assigned to care for Mr. Thomas reads in the medical record (chart) that he learned two days ago he was HIV positive. There is a note in the record that indicates that Mr. Thomas has not told his wife the diagnosis. To complete a functional health pattern assessment, the nurse asks Mr. Thomas if he may ask him a few questions. Mr. Thomas is willing and in the course of their conversation shares with the nurse that he believes that he contracted the HIV during an affair with another woman. He states, â€Å"How can I tell my wife about this? I am so ashamed. It is bad enough that I had an affair, but to have to tell her in this way – I just don’t think I can. She is not sick at all. I will just say I have pneumonia and take the medication my health care provider gave me. I do not want my wife of anyone else to know. If she begins to show signs of not feeling well, then I will tell her. I just can’t tell anyone. What will people think of me if they know I have AIDS?† 1. Briefly discuss how the HIV is transmitted and how it is not. How can Mr. Thomas prevent the transmission of HIV to his wife and others? In infected people, infectious HIV is present only in cells and in some bodily fluids. HIV can be isolated easily from blood, semen and vaginal/cervical secretions (including menstrual fluids). Blood and semen are the cells that are most likely to carry HIV. HIV has also been isolated from breast milk. With much greater difficulty, the virus has on occasion, been isolated from saliva, tears, and urine. It is has not been isolated from perspiration or feces. The current scientific view is that body fluids other than blood, semen, vaginal/cervical secretions, and breast  milk, contain so little, if any, HIV that they are not of major importance in HIV transmission between individuals. HIV is very fragile outside of the body, so transmission requires direct contact of two substances, fluid containing the HIV from an infected person and susceptible cells (usually via the blood stream) of another person. Casual contact includes all types of ordinary every day, non-sexual contact between and among people. Shaking hands, hugging, kissing, sharing eating utensils, sharing towels or napkins, using the same phone and using a toilet seat are all examples of casual contact. Because HIV is quickly inactive outside the body, it cannot survive in open air or in water. (1) Methods that Mr. Thomas can transmit HIV to his wife and others would be any type of blood transmission or intimate sexual contact. Epidemiological data points to three modes of HIV transmission from person to person: from blood, from birth, and from sex. Since Mr. Thomas is male we can cross out birth. Mr. Thomas can prevent transmission of HIV to his wife and others by only engaging in sexual activity with a condom, and even then there is a risk of the condom breaking and then being careful with any types of cuts, open wounds, and contact with others and his own blood. 2. Mr. Thomas stated, â€Å"What will people think of me if they know I have AIDS?† How can the nurse explain the difference between being HIV positive and having AIDS? The nurse can explain n that Mr. Thomas does not have AIDS. AIDs are a complication once the immune system can no longer handle fighting the HIV infection. HIV is the actual infection itself, AIDS is what happens once the immune system is compromised leading the way to other infections that may not affect a normal healthy adult or child, but become life threatening to a person with AID’s. This is caused by the weakened immune systems inability to fight off any infection. 3. Discuss the ethical dilemmas inherent in this case. HIV disclosure is defined as a ‘complex and multifaceted process of making a voluntary or involuntary decision about whom to inform about one’s status,  why, when, where and how’ . This is particularly challenging when it comes to informing patients’ sexual partners, also referred to as partner notification. The three approaches to partner notification include: i) source referral, whereby the health care provider encourages the patients to alert their partners themselves; ii) provider referral, whereby the health care provider notifies the partners with the consent of the patients while respecting the patients’ confidentiality; and iii) conditional referral, whereby the patients in agreement with the health care provider are supposed to inform their partners within a given time frame otherwise the health care provider will do so (but without revealing the patients’ identity)(2) 4. Does the health care provider have a legal obligation to tell anyone other than Mr. Thomas that he is HIV positive? If so, discuss. Legally, the nurse can’t tell anyone. â€Å"In court notifying an HIV-positive patient’s partner can be argued in terms of breaching professional ethics because ethically it is wrong to disclose your patient’s result or diagnosis to third parties without that individual’s consent.† 5. Any loss, such as loss of one’s health, results in a grief response. Describe the stages of grief according to Kubler-Ross. Denial: â€Å"This cannot happen to me!† Anger: â€Å"Why did this happen to me? Who’s to blame for this?† Bargaining: â€Å"Just let me live, and I’ll do anything† Depression: â€Å"I am too sad to do anything† Acceptance: â€Å"I’m at peace with what is coming†. 6. Discuss which stage of grief Mr. Thomas is most likely experiencing. Provide examples of Mr. Thomas’s behavior that support your decision. I believe that Mr. Thomas is experiencing both denial and anger. In denial, he recognizes that this is indeed happening to him but he does not want his wife to know and that is his refusal to accept what is going on. The anger portion comes from him blaming his affair for it happening in which sense he blames both himself and the woman he had the affair with. 7. What laboratory tests are used to confirm the diagnosis of HIV infection in an adult? HIV is most commonly diagnosed by testing your blood or saliva for the presence of antibodies to the virus. A newer type of test checks for HIV antigen, a protein produced by the virus immediately after infection. 8. Discuss the function of CD4 T cells and provide an example of how the CD4 t cell count guides the management of HIV. CD4 cells are a type of white blood cell that’s specifically targeted and destroyed by HIV. A healthy person’s CD4 count can vary from 500 to more than 1,000. Even if a person has no symptoms, HIV infection progresses to AIDS when his or her CD4 count becomes less than 200. (3) 9. Briefly explain the purpose of viral load blood tests in monitoring the progression of HIV. The viral load test measures the amount of virus in your blood. Studies have shown that people with higher viral loads generally fare more poorly than do those with a lower viral load.(3) 10. Mr. Thomas expresses a readiness to learn more about HIV. Discuss the nurse’s initial intervention when beginning client teaching and then discuss the progression of the HIV disease, including an explanation of primary infection, A, B, and C and four main types of opportunistic infections. There are different stages of HIV infection. Primary HIV infection can show symptoms that can be confused as the flu. These symptoms can last for a couple days to a few weeks and then disappear. Stage 2 is an asymptomatic stage meaning that the patient probably shows little to no symptoms. â€Å"This stage lasts for an average of ten years and, as its name suggests, is free from major symptoms, although there may be swollen glands. The level of HIV in the peripheral blood drops to very low levels but people remain infectious and HIV antibodies are detectable in the blood, so antibody tests will show a positive result. Research has shown that HIV is not dormant  during this stage, but is very active in the lymph nodes. A test is available to measure the small amount of HIV that escapes the lymph nodes. This test which measures HIV RNA (HIV genetic material) is referred to as the viral load test, and it has an important role in the treatment of HIV infection.† (4) Stage 3 is symptomatic HIV characterized by lymph nodes and tissues becoming permanently damaged and the virus beginning to mutate to AIDs due to the inability of the body keeping up with helper T cell rebuilding as the HIV virus kills off the helper T cells. Stage 4 is progression of HIV to AIDS. AIDS is diagnosed when any condition listed in clinical stage 4 is diagnosed and/or the CD4 count is less than 200 cells/mm3 or a CD4 percentage less than 15. (4) The ABC’s of HIV are: Abstinence for youth, including the delay of sexual debut and abstinence until marriage Being tested for HIV and being faithful in marriage and monogamous relationships Correct and consistent use of condoms for those who practice high-risk behaviours (4) The CDC has listed 24 types of opportunistic infections regarding HIV. As his nurse I would make sure Mr. Thomas had the information regarding all 24, but I would clarify on the 4 main ones since he is already exhibiting symptoms of those. Four main types of opportunistic infections in regards to HIV are: â€Å"Thrush: fungal infection of the mouth, throat, or vagina. Herpes simplex virus: can cause oral herpes (cold sores) or genital herpes. This is a fairly common infection but if you have HIV, the outbreaks can be much more frequent and more severe. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC or MAI) – a bacterial infection that can cause recurring fevers, general sick feelings, problems with digestion, and serious weight loss Pneumo cystis pneumonia (PCP) – a fungal infection that can cause a fatal pneumonia.† (6) 11. Following the nurse’s teaching, Mr. Thomas states, â€Å"How stupid I was to have that affair. Not only could it ruin my marriage, but it gave me a death sentence.† Share with Mr. Thomas what you know about long-term survivors, long-term non-progressors, and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). HIV carriers can carry the virus for a decade showing little to no symptoms. There are many different types of maintenance drug therapies to alleviate symptoms, and reduce the rate of progression. Antiretroviral therapy can help stall the progression of the disease, however, discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy may result in viral rebound, immune decomposition, and clinical progression of HIV. Interruption of HAART is not recommended (7). With HAART, patients who have had a positive HIV test have gone as long as 30 years with little to no symptoms and no progression of AIDS (6). HAART is defined as a drug regimen to achieve sustained viral suppression. Simplified treatment regimens and decreasing the number of medications that patients have to take each day has proven effective in patient’s adherence to their treatment. Drug companies are constantly finding new ways to combine the inhibitors into 2-3 medications versus the extensive treatment regimens originally used. Overall adherence rates are still only 30-50% in the US, so I would recommend ex tensive follow up with Mr. Thomas and his health care providers to increase his adherence. 12. Discuss how the nurse should respond if Mr. Thomas’s wife approaches him in the hall and asks, â€Å"Did the test results come back yet? Do you know what is wrong with my husband?† The nurse must tell Mr. Thomas’s wife that she cannot discuss Mr. Thomas’s medical condition with her and that she must ask Mr. Thomas himself. Legally and ethically, the nurse cannot give Mr. Thomas’s wife any information regarding his condition and diagnosis if Mr. Thomas has specifically asked for no information to be disclosed, which he has. 13. List five possible nursing diagnoses appropriate to consider for Mr. Thomas. I chose these 5 for where Mr. Thomas is related to his disease at this time. 1. Deficient knowledge related to HIV infection, means of preventing HIV transmission, and self-care 2. Risk for infection related to immunodeficiency. 3. Activity intolerance related to weakness, fatigue, malnutrition, impaired fluid and electrolyte balance and hypoxia associated with pulmonary infections. 4. Social isolation related to stigma of disease, withdrawal of support systems, isolation procedures, and fear of infecting others. 5. Anticipatory grieving related t changes in lifestyle and roles and unfavorable prognosis References 1) Conner, Ross F., & Fan, Hung Y., & Vilarreal, Luis P. Aids, Science and Society, Sixth Edition, 2011, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC 2) http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-698X/11/6 3) www.mayoclinic.com 4) www.avert.org 5) www.cdc.org 6) www.aids.org 7) Smeltzer, Suzanne C., & Hinkle, Janice L., & Bare, Brenda G., & Cheever, Kerry H. Brunner & Suddarth’s Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, (2010), Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins